Persian Gulf Today Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Persian Gulf Today - Essay Example The city fostered education and culture among the Muslim people. The period was refereed to s the golden age of the civilization in the entire Muslim world. During, this time, the Muslim world made great strides in the field of science and art. In fact, the city was made the center for museums and mosques. The British made an agreement concerning the battle with the Hashemite dynasty. The Arabian countries were at risk of losing their sovereignty to the Hashemite dynasty, which was led by the Ottoman army. The British contributed in the battle between the Ottoman army and the Arab military. The British’s influence in the war made the Arab military to win the battle. Consequently, many Arabian territories were protected. In this regard, the Faisal al-Hussein was crowned as the first King of Iraq. The British later agreed to help the Arabic countries achieve their independent status. The initiative was aimed at breaking the countries from the control of the

The following problems in the space provided Essay Example for Free

The following problems in the space provided Essay Answer the following questions and solve the following problems in the space provided. When you are done, save the file in the format flastname_Week_1_Problem_Set.docx, where flastname is your first initial and you last name, and submit it to the appropriate dropbox. Chapter 1 (page 19) 1. What is the most important difference between a corporation and all other organizational forms? Corporations has unlimited life time and limited liabilities and also has real entity and legal entity, because any stakeholder can sue against the corporation. Financing is very easy for investment in corporation. On the other hand, all other organizations have limited life span since it is directly owned by one person or partners and also have unlimited liabilities. Investment is very difficult since self-finance. 2. What does the phrase limited liability mean in a corporate context? Stakeholders liability is limited to the amount they invested in the corporations. Stockholders are not responsible for any encumbrances of the company specifically; they cannot be required to pay back any debts incurred by the firm. Therefore, anything that diminishes a property’s worth or makes it less useful or enjoyable; is not responsible by the owners in corporate context. 3. Which organizational forms give their owners limited liability? Corporations 4. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of organizing a firm as a corporation? Corporations are probably the dominant form of business organization in the United States. A corporation is a legal entity doing business, and is distinct from the individuals within the entity. Public corporations are owned by shareholders who elect a board of directors to oversee primary responsibilities. Along with standard, for-profit corporations, there are charitable, not-for-profit corporations. Advantages Unlimited commercial life. The corporation is an entity of its own and does not dissolve when ownership changes. Greater flexibility in raising capital through the sale of stock. Ease of transferring ownership by selling stock. Limited liability. This limited liability is probably the biggest advantage to organizing as a corporation. Individual owners in corporations have limits on their personal liability. Even if a corporation is sued for billions of dollars, individual shareholders liability is generally limited to the value of their own stock in the corporation. Disadvantages Regulatory restrictions. Corporations are typically more closely monitored by governmental agencies, including federal, state, and local. Complying with regulations can be costly. Higher organizational and operational costs. Corporations have to file articles of incorporation with the appropriate state authorities. These legal and clerical expenses, along with other recurring operational expenses, can contribute to budgetary challenges. Double taxation. The possibility of double taxation arises when companies declare and pay taxes on the net income of the corporation, which they pay through their corporate income tax returns. If the corporation also pays out dividends to individual shareholders, those shareholders must declare that dividend income as personal income and pay taxes at the individual income tax rates. Thus, the possibility of double taxation. 5. Explain the difference between an S corporation and a C corporation. The S corporation has the unique feature of passing its income through to its owners, so that the entity itself does not pay income taxes. The owners report the income on their tax returns, thereby avoiding the double taxation that arises in a regular C corporation, where the business is taxed on its income, and then the investors are taxed on the dividends they receive from the corporation. In addition, every shareholder of â€Å"S† corporation must be a United States resident or citizen. A C corporation or a partnership cannot be a shareholder, though estates and certain trusts and charities can be investors. In â€Å"S† corporation there can only be a single class of stock, which prevents preferential payments and voting privileges. Also there are  limited shareholders in S corporations which is not more than 75 but in C corporations there are unlimited shareholders.

Aspergers Syndrome and Autism Stereotypes and life

Aspergers Syndrome and Autism Stereotypes and life According to the Center for Disease Control, Autism (or a closely related disorder such as Aspergers Syndrome) affects 1 in 150 children in the United States. (Overview Autism, DD, NCBDDD, CDC) The first thing that you think of when you hear of Aspergers Syndrome or Autism; are the age old stereotypes that one with Aspergers Syndrome or Autism are labeled with, such as: that they cant feel emotions, they lack empathy, and most of all they are all like the guy from Rain Man. What about the positive side of having Aspergers Syndrome/Autism. Most of all, living with Aspergers Syndrome or Autism may come as a struggle, but with the right support anything is possible. Even though this is the twenty-first century; a lot of people still label people on the Autistic Spectrum with the age old stereotypes, but not all individuals on the spectrum abide by those stereotypes: The fact that individuals on the autism spectrum have no emotion is not true. The emotion is there; but the individual might have a hard time expressing those emotions, or the way the emotion is triggered is different then everyone elses. The myth about individuals on the spectrum not having a sense of humor is false. The individual on the spectrum might find different to be funny such as satire. It said that there is no capacity for improvement for those on the spectrum, and that is false. If the individual is given the right support and a positive environment, they will be able to improve. The age old stereotype within the autism spectrum is that they are all good at math, music or science, but that is a hit and miss situation. Sometimes an individual is bad at math but good at other things such as recognizing faces. (Carley 19-21) According to Reitman, Most stereotypes of persons with autism are that they are odd, aloof, strange, or loners. Those who are labeled with Aspergers tend to be thought of as nerds or brains but as people who lack basic social graces, lack manners, and do not have friends. Those characterizations are rarely the truth though and those with these labels often struggle to free themselves of them. (Reitman) What Reitman means; when an individual on the spectrum is labeled with these stereotypes it is a challenge for them to prove their community and the world wrong, and that they can achieve anything that they put their mind to. From Frys personal stand point, People on the spectrum tend to be labeled as: geeky nerdy people with no social skills, lack of empathy, sometimes as someone with a mental health issue rather than neurological condition, and as someone who may be learning disabled. (Fry) Not all people on the spectrum can calculate dates and generate calendars in their heads like Rain Man can. Only those with a form of Savant Syndrome have those kinds of abilities. According to Jackson, being talented at math is either a hit or miss: I am no genius in this area but a lot of AS kids are. It seems to be one thing that you either excel at or you dont. A lot of kids with AS love Latin, German, and definitely information technology (IT). There may be some subjects which are better suited to an AS persons brain but, generally speaking, we are not clones and have our own strengths and weaknesses. Despite the film Rain Man, we dont all have these amazing mathematical skills. (Jackson 123) The positives of having Aspergers Syndrome or Autism are, having an extraordinary memory and being honest. Lisa Rudy from About.com has listed the top 10 terrific traits of Autistic people, and just to name a few of them: Autistics rarely judge other people, they are less materialistic, play fewer head games, and they have fewer hidden agendas. (Rudy) Pyles stated: Many people with Aspergers Syndrome tend to have normal or high levels of intelligence, and test in the high IQ ranges. Individuals with Aspergers Syndrome tend to have phenomenal memories, especially for things they are interested in. Most individuals with Aspergers Syndrome tend be very honest and they rarely tell lies. Lies dont work for them anyways. Also people with Aspergers Syndrome are law-abiding citizens. (Pyles 67-69) So if someone thinks an individual on the spectrum is lying and insist thats true; then that are wrong, because people on the Autistic Spectrum dont have a reason to tell lies, because of most the time when they do tell lies; they are bad at it and then they feel guilty for lying. Imagine that a person can remember almost everything that happened to them; in this cause that is true for individuals on the Autistic Spectrum. They can remember almost anything such as: exact details, places, events and sometimes exact date and time. According to Kanners research on Autism: Many of Kanners children had superb rote memory. They were able to remember and mechanically repeat large amounts of information. Some of the children were capable of memorizing and repeating long and unusual words. Others repeated the questions and answers of the Presbyterian Catechism, list of animals, nursery rhymes, a roster of the U.S. presidents, and lullabies in French. (Rodriguez 31) People on the Autistic Spectrum deal with everyday life the best way that they can; most of the time a person on the spectrum can lead an almost normal life with a little bit of help. For example, they would have to learn coping skills to deal with everyday dramas and to make the right decision during tough times, and social skills to help them get along in society. Society isnt made for those on the spectrum, and is actually made for a NeuroTypical. NeuroTypical is defined as: An informal term used by the online autism community to denote those whose neurological development and function is within the normal range. (A World Apart Definitions) That is no excuse though for a person on the spectrum to give up on society and live a stereotypical life. For those living on the spectrum, it is hard to pick up on social cues or figure out what is the right behavior for each social situation. Today, there are therapies and other resources out there such as, speech therapy, occupational therapy and social skills training. There are even specialists trained in working with people on the Autistic Spectrum. For example: Reitman works with individuals as young as 18 months and on into adulthood as well. With the younger individuals, Reitman addresses communication and social skills deficits through role-play, creation of rules and discussions of difficulties being encountered. For adolescents and adults, the struggles with miscommunication are frequent ones, as is the managing of ever-shifting priorities and responsibilities. Organization, self-esteem, initiation, and inattention are common issues that are addressed in therapy. (Reitman) Even though there are all these therapies and other resources out there, but not all of them is for every individual. I believe that there is no one treatment that works for everyone and that each individual is unique. The work we do is collaborative and aimed at helping the person to develop self-awareness, empathy, and perspective-taking skills. (Reitman) Then there is the view of the individual on the spectrum and how they view their everyday life. Fry takes it as it comes when it comes to life, he tries to build a network of friends and family who are autistic aware, tries to avoid situations were would not feel comfortable for example: social events or places where there would be too much sensory inputs and he takes time out to refocus. (Fry) What do sensory inputs mean? Sensory inputs are actually sensory issues. As worded by Zaks, sensory issues may be thought of as difficulties interacting or dealing with the environment posed by the way the autistic brain handles sensory information. (Zaks 7) But what sensory issues do those on the spectrum deal with in everyday life though? The sensory issues that an individual on the spectrum deals with on the day-to-day basis varies at times; sometimes it is either noises such as, loud music, scratching the chalk board, or the vacuum cleaner. Then there are also smells and lights. If an individual is in an area where the sound is getting to them to the point where it gets too much for them, Zaks said: The most obvious answer is to get away from the noise. But that is not always possible. Sometimes down out the din. Other chose to wear ear plugs. If an intolerable noise suddenly occurs, an autistic person may need to bolt from the scene until measures are taken to reduce or eliminate the source of distress. (Zaks 16) Sometimes individuals can be sensitive to smells. From personal experiences this all known too well. Some smells can make an individual psychical ill and sometimes sick, smells such as, a stinky diaper, strong perfume, and canned salmon. There are also other smells that would irritate almost anyone regardless of being on the spectrum or not, but it irritate and bothers those on the spectrum even more than it does to those that are not on the spectrum. Zaks suggests, If scents are unavoidable and make you sick, try wearing a special filtration mask such as those used by cyclists to eliminate car fume smells when they ride in traffic. (Zaks 12) Often times, people on the spectrum are sensitive to light. Lights that do not cause other people stress can sting or hurt the eyes of a person on the spectrum, and cause them severe headaches or induce nausea. Some individuals cant tolerate the flashing lights of the television or movies. Even though their vision may measure within the normal range at the eye doctors, yet they will still have a problem with painful eyes. (Zaks 13) However there are some suggestions though, the individual could get transitions lenses if they need prescription glasses, or wear lightly tented sun glasses if they do not need prescription glasses. Even though the first thing you think of when you hear of Aspergers Syndrome or Autism are the age old stereotypes. There still positive sides of being on the spectrum. While growing up with having Aspergers syndrome or Autism may be rough, but there is better help out there and more information then there was years ago. Years ago, the Autistic Spectrum was just being researched on and not much was known about it, but today there is more information out there for individuals on the spectrum to find and better oneself and become a more productive citizen of society. Instead of being a living stereotype like the world wants them to be.

Saul Essay -- Religion, God

Change is inevitable. However, whether the change is good or bad depends on the individual. In the bible, Saul is described, at first, to be a â€Å"handsome man, and [that] there was not a more handsome person than he among the songs of Israel; from his shoulders and up he was taller than any of the people,† an image that appears the most fit for a king (1 Samuel 9:2). Conveniently, due to the people’s complaints and want of a king, Samuel finds Saul, the son of Kish from the tribe of Benjamites, with the help of God’s guidance and Saul is anointed as the first king of Israel. As king, Saul exploits valiant roles in battles and leads Israel with confidence, yet, as time goes on, Saul begins to undergo a transformation that will bring him closer to his â€Å"darker† side with every sin stacking on top of the previous flaw. It all appears to begin when Saul disobeys God’s orders, told through Samuel, to destroy all the Amalekites, by sparing the Agag ’s life, best livestock, and keeping onto the â€Å"good things† (1 Samuel 15:9). The change that Saul experiences is shaped by his flaws – greed, jealously, selfishness – that permeates his character, eventually leading to his demise. First off, Saul’s strengths before his change include being self-sufficient and having a strong grip on Israel. Saul is a character that seems to fend for himself in risky situations, such as when Saul was in a war with the Philistines, he waited for Samuel but when Samuel was delayed in his coming to Gilgal, Saul took matters into his own hands to please the Israelites, who were restless (1 Samuel 13:8-9). In addition, Saul is in command as king and holds true to his role, as he responds to the needs of Israelites yet he holds power to have the people obey his words... ...o that he can keep an eye on him and kill him when the time is right (1 Samuel 18:21). Lastly, the most apparent flaw is jealously, that takes root when he hears the people say â€Å"Saul has slain his thousands, And David his ten thousands† (1 Samuel 18-7) and flourishes as he no longer is the â€Å"anointed king by God.† For example, Saul is overcome with anger and jealously that he just throws a spear at David, while David is playing the harp for him (1 Samuel 18:10-11). Additionally, Saul continues to pursuit David out of spite and pure jealously and relentlessly targets David, even calling him an enemy, when his own daughter lets him go (1 Samuel 19: 17). This is Saul’s most dangerous flaw and irreversible turning point in his transformation, as he loses control of a logical mind, even hurling a spear at his own son Jonathan for letting David go (1 Samuel 20:33).

Factors Affecting Organizational Behavior Essay

All companies today have internal and external forces that impact organizational behavior. The purpose of this paper is to explore the impact of internal and external forces on organizational behavior. The four forces we will discuss are, customer demands relating to Sinclair Oil, economic forces outside of Select Portfolio Servicing, restructuring within Nestle, and globalization factors relating to Northrop Grumman. Customer Demands Customer demands have a large impact on organizational behavior (OB) of the Sinclair Oil Corporation (SOC). SOC owns and operates three oil refineries, a trucking division, a pipeline division, the retail service stations, and eight hotels and resorts. The diverse nature of the company leads to many different customer demands. The oil refineries have two types of customers. The first is the retail service stations. The refineries must produce enough finished product each day to supply the service stations in 17 different states. The second type of customer is the federal government. Over the last eight years SOC has held the contract to provide jet fuel to Hill Air Force base. The average amount of finished product produced at the refineries is 600 hundred thousand barrels a day. This output is usually enough to supply the service stations needs and have some oil to put into reserve. Working conditions within the refinery are inherently dangerous, if production cannot keep up with demands operators often begin to feel additional pressure to keep pace; this distress can lead to additional dangers. There are three different types of hotels and resorts within the SOC/Little America organization. There are roadside properties, which cater to travelers and tourists, the elegant hotels and the ski resorts. Each type of property gears itself and its organizational behavior towards the customer base. The roadside properties, such as Little America Cheyenne, have a more casual approach to the customers; due to the affluent nature at the Grand America the environment is formal. The resorts are highly influenced with a European flair. This help the customers feel a sense of adventure. Economy While customer demands are one of the primary forces on SOC, economic forces greatly impact the OB of Select Portfolio Servicing (SPS). SPS is a mortgage servicing company. The resource group or hardship group is within the loan resolution department. Loan resolution assists borrowers who have fallen delinquent on their mortgage. The resource group assists customers that have hardship, such as, illness, death, loss of employment for extended periods of time, and property damage. When the economy falters the activities of loan resolution are in higher demand. Loan resolution and the resource group profit off the economic hardship of their customers. The purpose of loan resolution is to turn loss into profit for their investors. Loan resolution limits or prevents the loss which the investor experiences when a customer defaults. Loan resolution is paid based off of the percentage of delinquent accounts that they get re-performing, get paid in full, or liquidate for a loss. With the faulty economy there is more a more work that loan resolution must perform. Loan resolution is understaffed and overworked. The influx of high phone call volumes has caused little time for the resource group to complete their administrative duties. Morale is low department wide, largely due to the administration feeling they are performing two jobs daily. Answering phone calls and trying to complete the work the inbound calls generate cannot be completed eight hours a day. While loan resolution’s numbers still satisfy the investors giving them business, the administrative departments, such as, the resource group are becoming stressed and overwhelmed with a never-ending workload. Restructuring Economic factors affect companies like SPS and Nestlà © alike, but Nestle has chosen restructuring as the answer to its dilemma. Nestle is suffering from  the â€Å"big elephant† syndrome. In the old market diversifying and buying up the competition allowed it to survive and prosper, but in the new economy which is consumer driven the â€Å"big elephant† has been asked â€Å"to dance† for the customer. Nestle must rise to the challenge of change or it will be driven into extinction. The strategic decision makers at Nestle are trying to â€Å"trim the fat† on the elephant, and they have turned to organizational behavior to restructure their workforce. Globalization and technology have evened out the playing field for Nestle and its competition. Nestle as well as the competition is able to obtain the same raw materials at the same prices, and technology has allowed each company quick and efficient ways to process information. So, where will Nestle find its sustainable competitive advantage for the future? The innovation and the motivation of its employees will be the source of its sustainable advantage. Nestle needs to find a way of unlocking this source of intellectual capital. The corporate leaders feel restructuring is the key. This restructuring process has changed the organizational behavior of the company from a rigid hierarchical structure to a facilitator driven, empowered employee structure. The organization believes improving speed at the point of execution will make the business more successful, and it is the front line employees that are at the point of execution. To develop empowered employees organizational behavioral changes needed to be made. Monthly training has taken place on subjects like: change, communication, one hundred percent responsibility, situational leadership, and teamwork so far. Layers of supervision have been cut, and reincorporated into the workforce. Supervisors are being groomed as coaches and facilitators, instead micromanaging. Equipment operators are learning mechanical â€Å"first aid† to fix small problems and improve efficiency. A mentoring program has been instituted, so that empowered employees with positive attitudes are the role models for new workers. Globalization Northrop Grumman Corporation (NGC) considers itself a world class leader in  the production of military defense products. Many of these products are created for, and consumed by, customers in the United States, but many are also created and sold to companies and or countries all over the world. The company’s current position has not been easy to reach. Maintaining and growing this position requires constant vigilance in an ever expanding global market place. In fact, global factors in today’s economy have forced the company to make constant internal improvements to remain competitive in the global market. Exportation of intellectual property and gains in technological advances and capabilities of companies in countries abroad have resulted in more foreign competition. The entry of additional competitors in the defense business market has forced companies like NGC to look closely at internal business processes to find ways to gain or maintain a competitive edge. NGC has learned to modify the organizations overall behavior by training individuals in the use of business methods such as LEAN, Six Sigma and Training Within Industry (TWI). The following is a simplified description of what each of these business methods is intended to do. LEAN is specifically used to improve processes, manage inventory and manage movement of product throughout the production phase as well as eliminate practices which don’t add value. Six Sigma is applied as a tool to measure critical processes in a way that insures they stay under control. This is essentially done by setting control limits and then collecting data and analyzing the trends or movement of data as it relates to the control limits. TWI is being employed to ensure that every employee has the proper skill set to function within their specified job requirements. This training process employs a regiment of training that teaches, measures what has been learned, as well as maintains critical training information and/or tricks of the trade. This training method also provides the company with details of each employee’s specific capabilities and certifications. These internal changes have proven themselves invaluable to the company, saving NGC time, money, and valuable recourses as well as assist them in monitoring the company’s daily business. Most of all, changes in NGC’s OBhas been noticed by a number of the company’s customers who have noted the positive impact.

The Theory of Social Contracts Essays

The Theory of Social Contracts Essays The Theory of Social Contracts Essay The Theory of Social Contracts Essay Essay Topic: The Social Contract The period of Enlightenment ushered in an age of intellectual development as well as theoretical formations on the concept of society. English political thinker Thomas Hobbes and French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau posit political treatises on the formation of social contracts as a necessity of man and eventually leads to the establishment of an ideal government. The paper will discuss first the concept of man’s nature according to both philosophers in order to determine the reason behind the formation of such contracts which will subsequently lead to the conception of governments and sovereignty. Hobbes proposes that man is essentially at war with other men, motivated by personal desire and fear of death that inhibits the formation of a peaceful society. Rousseau however, contradicts Hobbes argument of man as naturally at war but looks into a different state wherein man possesses compassion which enables the formation of ideal relationships and eventually, social contrac ts. We look into Hobbes’s viewpoint in his treatise Leviathan and compare and contrast several arguments with Rousseau’s On The Origin of Inequality and Social Contracts. Hobbes’ Natural Man and Covenants Hobbes’ political theory in Leviathan stipulates the formation of covenants as the final end of man’s actions, transgressing from his natural state wherein man is in constant war with himself and with others. First, we define Hobbes’ argument on the natural state of man that provides the basis of conflict. In comparison with Rousseau’s viewpoint, the nature of social contracts is reversed, wherein Rousseau’s notion of social conventions is negative compared to Hobbes’ notion of contracts as a deviation from the erring state of human nature. Hobbes argues: â€Å"For every man look that his companion should value him at the same rate he sets upon himself, and upon all signs of contempt or undervaluing naturally endeavor to extort a greater value from his condemners. So that in the nature of man, we find three principal causes of quarrel. First, competition; secondly, diffidence; thirdly, glory (Hobbes 84). The primitive state of man is bordere d on Hobbes’ statement â€Å"where every man is enemy to every man† (Hobbes 85). Each individual is focused on the aspiration for personal gain, thus creating conflict or an unharmonious relationship because of completion (gain), diffidence (safety, self-preservation), and glory (reputation). The chaotic context provided in Hobbes argument consequently inhibits the concept of justice in a particular social setting. Since man is motivated by personal gain, the fear of death through self-preservation, and personal glory, there is no concept of right and wrong or even justice. â€Å"Where there is no common power, there is no law; where no law, no injustice† (Hobbes 85). Thus, we see Hobbes attempt to present his first law on man’s natural state: that man, motivated by personal gain, sets himself in conflict with other men who pursue the same object. He then narrates â€Å"the passions that incline men to peace are: fear of death; desire of such things as a re necessary to commodious living; and a hope by their industry to obtain them† (Hobbes 86). According to Hobbes, the natural law governing social relationships is motivated by the passions; specifically, man’s fear of death. Thus, the first natural law, in context with the natural state, is that every man has innate rights or liberty to will himself to self-preservation and that one can do anything to his body, even to another person. As long as this natural law exists, there can be no harmonious buildup of society. The second law then obligates man to create peace or to achieve peace through any means necessary and from here, man is then obligated to set such rule to all and that every right of man is necessary to be withdrawn or transferred in order to build peace; since to maintain the second rule, man will be constantly at war. The renouncement of rights is essentially good in itself because it aspires for the majority rather than the self, governed by selfish passions. However, such rights are not to be taken away by force or for an individual to force himself o f withdrawing his own, since â€Å"he cannot be understood to aim thereby at any good to himself† (Hobbes 91). Renouncement of rights should be voluntary and by choice, in order to determine the goodness which will benefit the majority. Thus, social contracts or covenants are formed. Hobbes argues that for a man to achieve peace, it is necessary to break away, through the tenets of reason, from the natural state wherein every individual is motivated by personal gain and fear of death. This fear motivates the individual, in relation to self-preservation, to create contracts with other men in order to achieve peace, wherein the value of life becomes the unifying factor for all; thus creating peace and harmony. Covenants are then considered to be the agreements that will benefit two parties aspiring for different objects. Justice then presents itself in the presence of covenants, for justice occurs when an individual performs or acts upon the agreement or covenant while injustic e is the failure to establish covenants which inadvertently places the individual in his former natural state. Hobbes definition of the natural state and the natural law focuses on the importance of self-preservation or the fear of the death in relation to the individual. In contrast with Rousseau, the formation of contract is that of beneficial to man rather than Rousseau’s argument that society itself that provides inequality and conflict. Contracts, through reason, necessitate a societal framework that is governed by the inexpressible right of every man to survival and preservation of life. The Commonwealth For Hobbes, the ideal form of government is the formation of the commonwealth which acts as the â€Å"final cause, end or design of men (who naturally love liberty and dominion over others) in the introduction of that restraint upon themselves, in which we see them live in Commonwealths, is the foresight of their own preservation, and of a more contented life thereby† (Hobbes 116). The formation of covenants, which represent a duty-bound notion to aspire for peaceful societal conditions, inevitably leads to its conception wherein the withdrawal of individual rights is penultimate toward its formation. Conventions serve the function as a mean toward the aspiration of the common power or will of the majority. Common power acts as a protection against external attack or injuries that an individual may cause upon the other and is formed through the transcendence of personal right to a man or an assembly: â€Å"Confer all their power and strength upon one man, or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their will, by plurality of their voice, unto one will: which is as much to say, to appoint one man, or assembly of men, to bear their person† (Hobbes 118). Every man should then willingly state: â€Å"I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition; that thou give up thy right to him and authorize all his action in like manner† (Hobbes 118). We take into context a mix between a democracy (representation of the few) and monarchy (rule by a sovereign). However, Hobbes’ monarchy is not entirely absolute, ruled by the elite or loyalty; rather Hobbes’ conception of monarchy focuses on the rule of a sovereign where powers are granted by the conventions of the majority. From such, the sovereign is then obligated to perform the powers bestowed upon the social covenants; the sovereign itself being a representation of the general will of the people. The Commonwealth The sovereign, either instituted in one man or an assembly of men, is bestowed power of the withheld rights by society or subjects. As sovereign, its responsibility lies on any action or authorization to ensure the presence of duration of peace and to create any means necessary to protect individuals from others as well as to protect attacks from other societies. According to Hobbes, there are only three kinds of commonwealth and nothing else; a democracy, monarchy, or aristocracy. Hobbes does not believe that no man aspires for a turbulent and rocky society. However, Hobbes is partial toward a monarchial government, which, according to him, generally embodies the conventions made by man, and in essence, the nature of a commonwealth: â€Å"The riches power and honor of a monarch arise only from the riches, strength, and reputation of his subject. For no king can be rich nor glorious, nor secure, whose subjects are either poor, or contemptible, or too weak through want, or dissension† (Hobbes 130). Amor Propre and Civil Society On the other hand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s work Discourse on Inequality and Social Contract primarily present arguments against Hobbes’ definition on the natural state of man in contrast with social systems and conventions. Rousseau argues on the condition of the human soul as it progresses from its distinct natural form up until the pure state of man is transformed through social relationships or systems. First, he argues the physical differences of man, which in essence, does not ultimately provide a firm basis of inequality: I conceive that there are two kinds of inequality among the human species; one which I call natural or physical, because it is established by nature, and consists in a difference of age, health, bodily strength, and the qualities of the mind or the soul; and another, which may be called moral or political inequality, because it depends on a kind of convention. (Rousseau 1) Apart from physical differences, inequality falls under the moral or political sense. In the context of social structure, inequality lies on the ladder of power and wealth, wherein the notion of civil society is created by the rich in order to suppress the poor of wealth and maintain power among the elite few. In contrast with Hobbes, Rousseau presents a different view of man’s natural state wherein man is savage in nature wherein ideas are generated by sense experience. But in opposition to regular animals, man has reason that establishes himself apart from common animals. The natural behavior of man is similar to that of Hobbes’ viewpoint but differs in motivation. According to Rousseau, the basic instinct of man is self-preservation, free will and compassion; the last being the most important part in man’s natural state wherein Hobbes contends to man’s natural war with the other. He contends Hobbes’ view of man’s nature which compels him w ith the fear of death. However, Rousseau argues: â€Å"the knowledge of death and its terrors being one of the first acquisitions made by man in departing from an animal state† (Rousseau 17). In contrast, Hobbes’ provides death as a motivator for withdrawing personal rights in order to achieve peace while Rousseau presents reason as a way of fighting the irrational passions that push him out of his natural state. In addition, compassion is the important natural virtue that contradicts selfish impulses or vices which come from the passions or irrational tendencies of man. Rousseau narrates that Hobbes’ definition of man does not provide himself with an idea of goodness, that man may be considered as evil. Rousseau’s view presents man, in his primitive state, as essentially good, and possesses virtue. â€Å"so many writers have hastily concluded that man is naturally cruel, and requires civil institutions to make him more mild; whereas nothing is more gent le than man in his primitive state, as he is placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes† (Rousseau 47). Compassion is the most important aspect of man, along with innate desires of preservation, reason and free will. â€Å"It is this compassion that hurries us without reflection to the relief of those who are in distress: it is this which in a state of nature supplies the place of laws, morals, and virtue, with the advantage that none are tempted to disobey its gentle voice† (Rousseau 31). Compassion generates interaction with other men and the natural instinct of self-preservation, as times continue to progress, enables the individual to improve living conditions. Thus, the combination of compassion, reason, self-preservation enables the individual to form conventions with other men. However, the problem lies with the development of amour propre, the subsequent regularity of conventions where man’s reason is garbled to a false sense of dependency on the individuals through improvement of self-perception and acquiring favor. The natural, non-invasive self-love is transformed to a more self-centered and jealous love of others. â€Å"Man must now, therefore, have been perpetually employed in getting others to interest themselves in his lot and in making them, apparently at least, if not really, find their advantage in promoting his own† (Rousseau 51). This corrosive notion of self-love produces competition, comparison with others, hatred, and the continuous search of ambition and power: â€Å"In a word, there arose rivalry and competition on the one hand and conflicting interests on the other, together with a secret desire on both profiting at the expense of others† (Rousseau 51). The Social Contract Thus, Rousseau defines man’s state of nature as it develops amour propre. To deviate from the natural state, the formation of social contract is evident in order to rid of the evils pertaining civil society. According to Rousseau, the conception of social contracts delimits the individual from inequality and therefore frees himself from the trappings of social classification. The purpose of the contract is to establish a body that will inadvertently defend the rights of the individual and the right of society as a while. Similar to that of Hobbes’ notion, social contracts are meant to deviate the condition of human nature from its amoral/evil sense in order to create society focused on peace. The social contract, in Rousseau’s perspective, is founded on the presence of the general will: â€Å"Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisi ble part of the whole† (Rousseau Social Contract, 59). The general will is the summation of all opinions of the majority, which in turn acts as an abstract form that aims toward the good of all. Rousseau also posits the idea of a sovereign which acts a representative of the people. The people however, in Rousseau’s form of government, are not represented by senators or magistrates but represent themselves as a symbol of the general will. Sovereign Similarities Both philosophers argue on the importance of social contracts in establishing relationships with people in order to construct an acceptable and peaceful social framework. Both stress the importance of the ‘natural’ law of man to deviate himself from his primary state and is obligated to create a world without indifference and conflict through commonality of opinions and desire. The difference lies on both philosophers account of man’s nature, wherein Hobbes argues that man is essentially evil and it is through civil relationship that man refines himself and achieves peace. Rousseau contradicts Hobbes’ arguments that he had failed to include compassion as a virtue in man’s natural state. Rousseau opines negatively toward civil societies, that conventions itself ruin man’s natural state through social classification and levels of power. Instead, Rousseau posits man as a docile creature until society corrupts his natural state. On the subject of contracts, both thinkers apply the same rule for the formation of social agreement as majority of society transfers its rights toward a sovereign that which governs and protects them. However, Hobbes is partial toward a monarchial government wherein it is suited with the embodiment of his covenants while Rousseau proposes the same powers for a sovereign but also adds the presence of the government to mitigate the function of the sovereign who acts as the representation of the general will while the government attends to particular or private wills. Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments Economic theorist Adam Smith proposes on his treatise Theory of Moral Sentiments the formation of a consciousness in the perspective of a leader, or in Rousseau’s/Hobbes’ context, a sovereign, in order to determine, apart from proper behavior, the rules and regulations that one must impose upon the subjects of society. Smith narrates: â€Å"We suppose ourselves the spectators of our own behavior, and to endeavor to imagine what effect it would, in this light produce upon us† (Smith 112). In context of a sovereign, it is essential, according to Smith, to examine actions and decisions through a detached position wherein the leader supposes himself to be a common citizen that according to theory, provides the power and responsibility of governance. Thus, rules imposed upon the subjects of sovereignty should be taken into proper consideration by the sovereign, so as to measure the worth and value of behavior reflection upon society, according to Smith. For example, a ruler’s ethical behavior is dependent on the laws in which he imposes over the ruled. Harsh policies that generally disfavor society imply that the ruler may be arrogant and selfish and therefore does not suit the position. Lenient policies on the other hand may imply a carefree attitude with the lack of seriousness that a good leader must possess. Thus, rules and impositions should situate itself in the middle rather than the extreme and through Smith’s propositions, the leader must then view rules as an ordinary citizen. In relation to Hobbes’ and Rousseau’s social theories, the concept of the sovereign is created by the people and represents the general will. Therefore, there is an implication of a natural balance of power between the governed and the sovereign. In Hobbes view, the sovereign’s duty is dictated or authored by the subjects and therefore cannot harm the governed whether through abuse or dereliction of duty; rather, the formation o f laws and policies are in relation toward the fulfillment of the commonwealth’s purpose – that is, the preservation of peace. However, Hobbes monarchial standpoint does not entirely agree with Smith’s proposition since the monarch, utilizing the commonwealth’s purpose, has the power of censorship on speech, publication or any other form of expression that may disturb the peaceful status quo. Thus, Smith’s proposal cannot be applied with Hobbes’s notion of government. However, Rousseau takes into consideration the general will of the populace that also gives right and power to the sovereign. But Rousseau does not imply the purpose of peace in his government; rather, he focuses on the general will as given power. The sovereign has then the duty to make sure that laws do not violate the freedom of every individual for it is they who had created power in the first place. Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. Mineola, N.Y. Dover Publications, 2006. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 2004. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract. New York: Penguin Classics, 1968. Smith, Adam. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publications, 1997.